The development of refrigeration has had a huge impact on society. It has changed our diets, economies, manufacturing industries and even where we are able to live.
Humanity discovered long ago that cold temperatures prolonged the lifespan of food. Storage pits cut into the permafrost have been found at a Ukrainian settlement dating to around 13,000 BCE. The 19th century saw ongoing experimentation in refrigeration, while ice was being harvested and shipped around the world for use in refrigeration on an increasingly industrial level.
The first commercial shipment of ice was sent from New York to South Carolina in 1799. Unfortunately, very little ice lasted the duration of the voyage.
But the potential was recognised by Frederick Tudor and Nathaniel Wyeth, who revolutionised the industry in the early 19th century. Tudor, who became known as the “ice king”, focused on developing better insulation, while Wyeth developed a method of harvesting ice that produced standard-sized blocks quickly and cheaply, allowing the industry to develop more efficient storage and distribution methods.
At the time, harvested ice was widely used, both industrially and domestically. Large estates had ice-houses, while those households that could afford it had an icebox, and bought small quantities of ice daily.
But by the end of the 19th century, ice was increasingly becoming affected by pollution and sewage, and large industrial users began to complain that it was tainted. This problem served to drive the development of mechanical refrigeration.
The first known experimentation in this area occurred in 1756. William Cullen, of the University of Glasgow, used a pump to create a partial vacuum over a container
of diethyl ether, which then boiled, absorbing heat from the surrounding air.
Further experiments by Oliver Evans and Jacob Perkins developed the technology. Working prototypes were built, but were not commercially viable.
Air-conditioning was first used in 1842, when an American doctor, John Gorrie, produced an air-cooling apparatus for the Florida hospital where he was treating yellow fever patients. His system operated on the same principle as that used in most refrigerators today: gas is compressed, cooled by sending it through radiating coils, and then expanded to further lower the temperature.
Once commercial refrigeration systems became available, the brewing industry was one of the first to adopt them, as they allowed it to manufacture a consistent product year-round.
Another early use of refrigeration was in the transport of meat and dairy products. Refrigerated rail carriages had been introduced in the US by 1851. These early refrigerated cars were insulated, and used ice to keep milk and butter cool.
The potential for using refrigeration to transport meat around the world was recognised in the 1870s. The first shipment of chilled beef arrived in Britain from New York in 1875. The first commercial success came in 1882, when a compression refrigeration unit was fitted to Dunedin, a New Zealand vessel. This technology led to a meat and dairy boom in Australasia and South America, but was devastating to British farmers.
Two of the most common applications of refrigeration are air-conditioning and home refrigerators. Air-conditioning has had a huge impact on the way people live, particularly in countries with hot climates. In the US, it has contributed to a general move to the southern states, and has allowed people to remain year-round in cities such as New York and Washington DC that were previously widely abandoned during the summer.
The domestic refrigerator did not become widespread until the mid-20th century, because early models were both large and dangerous. The refrigerants used, including ammonia and sulphur dioxide, were toxic, and leaks led to several deaths. But in 1928, scientists at Frigidaire discovered refrigerants called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) which were much safer, although the later discovery of their disastrous impact on the ozone layer meant their use has now been curtailed.
By 1960, domestic refrigerators were safe and had come to be regarded as essential household appliances. Now, instead of having to buy perishable foods every day, many families can do a weekly shop, safe in the knowledge that their groceries will be preserved in the fridge.